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«IPA» ; . .
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1888

  
   
IPA in IPA.svg
: Unicode.

 
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́ ́ ́ (. International Phonetic Alphabet, . IPA; . Alphabet phonétique international, . API)  . [1]. , , , , , [2][3].

, : , , [1]. , , , , ,   [2].

, . 2008 107 , 52 4 .

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:

1886 ́ , 1897 (. lAssociation phonétique internationale)[4]. . , Romic alphabet, , , [5]. , [ʃ] () «c»,   «x»[4]. , 1888 , [4][6].

. 1900 1932 1989 . 1993   [2] [7]. 2005   - (-) [8]. , , [2].

1990 1994 [9].

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  ( )[10]. [note 1] ( «x» [ks] [gz] ). , ( «c» ). , , ( «»[2])[note 2].

107 , 31  , , 19 , , [note 3].

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, [note 4].   . : , , , [ʔ], , [note 5]. , [ʕ], , (   «ﻉ»)[7].

, , . , 1989 () [ʘ], [ʇ], [ʗ] [ʖ]. , . , [ʘ], ( , ). 1989 , [ʘ], [ǀ], [ǃ], [ǂ] [ǁ][11].

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[4]. , , , « »[4]. [b], [d], [f], () [ɡ], (-) [h], () [k], [l], [m], [n], () [p], () [s], () [t], [v], [w] [z] , ; ([a], [e], [i], [o], [u]) : [i] machine, [u] rule  . . , , , [j] (, , , , , , , .), [r] (, , , .), [y] (, , , ).

, . , , . , [ʋ]  , . ([β], [θ] [χ]) , ( [ɣ], [ɛ], [ɸ] [ʋ]) , Unicode «».

[12]. , ,   . , , , , ( , , Visible Speech).

, , . . , .

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.: .

«international» («»),
.

, , : . , , , () (. narrow transcription). () (. broad transcription), «» . [1], .

, . , , , «» , . , . , «little» («») /lɪtl/, , , . , . , ( ) . «little» , : [lɪɾɫ] ( ), [lɪʔɫ] (), [lɪːɫ]  .

, ; . : . , .

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. . , . . [13]. Flege, Mackay Piske (2002) Sebastián-Gallés, Echeverría Bosch (2005) , ().

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, ( ) (. Americanist phonetic notation) , , () . , [14].

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, , Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, [15]. ( ) , , . , ( Merriam-Webster) «y» [j] «sh»  [ʃ], [16] ( [y] u ( tu), [sh]  grasshopper).

  , - . , American Heritage Dictionary ŏ cot (kŏt), ô caught (kôt)[17]. ŏ ô (, [ɒ] ; , , cot, , [ɑ] [a], caught  [ɔ] [ɑ], . cot ( o) .

. , , [18].

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, , . , , , , , .

  , Ɔ Ɛ Ɖ Ŋ Ɣ Ʃ Ʊ ( Ʋ) ( ɔ ɛ ɖ ŋ ɣ ʃ ʊ [ ʋ]): MBƱ AJƐYA KIGBƐNDƱƱ ŊGBƐYƐ KEDIƔZAƔ SƆSƆƆ TƆM SE.   Ɓ Ƈ Ɗ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʒ .

, , .

1920- .

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, , . , [19] « »[20]. [21]. « 150 000 , , , , »[22].

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: , , [23][24]. , ( ɵ θ), , . .

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  , ( ) . , . [25].

, , , ( ) , ( ).

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  , ( ). [w] «went»  , . , , , .

ʍ
w ( )
ɥ
ɕ - (-)
ʑ - (-)
ɧ -

:

  • [ɧ] « [ʃ] [x]»[26]. , .

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, . , [1], . , , tˢ t͡s, kˣ ~ k͡x. , <c ɟ>, [t͡ʃ d͡ʒ] , .

t͡s ʦ
d͡z ʣ
t͡ʃ ʧ
d͡ʒ ʤ
t͡ɕ ʨ -
d͡ʑ ʥ -
t͡ɬ
k͡p -
ɡ͡b -
ŋ͡m -
  • Arial Unicode MS, , , : ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡.

[] ()

  , . () ( , ( ) ( ).

ʘ ɓ ʼ :
ǀ («») ɗ pʼ
ǃ (-) («») ʄ tʼ
ǂ («») ɠ kʼ
ǁ («») ʛ sʼ
  • :   , . , : [k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ]  . ., [ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ]. , [k]. , [27]. , , : [ǂ, ɡǂ, ŋǂ]  . .
  • [ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ] , . : [ɓ̥, ʛ̥]  . .
  • [ᶑ] . , , 4.1, [ɗ̢].
  • , . , [mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ] : [m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰].

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[i, u, a, ɑ] .
. .

, [28]. . .

. , , ,   .

, . , ( [ɛ]) , , ( [ʌ])  .

, , () ( ).   ().

. .
Blank vowel trapezoid.svg
i  y
ɨ  ʉ
ɯ  u
ɪ  ʏ
ɪ̈  ʊ̈
 ʊ
e  ø
ɘ  ɵ
ɤ  o
ə
ɛ  œ
ɜ  ɞ
ʌ  ɔ
æ
ɐ
a  ɶ
ɑ  ɒ
.
.-
.-
.

:

  • [ɶ] .
  • [a] , , [a] [14]. , ([a̱]).
  • [ʊ] [ɪ] [ɷ] [ɩ].

[]

(). , , . . , . , , , .

,
ˈ ˌ
ː
˘
ˑ
.
|
ē ˧
é ˦ è ˨
e̋ ˥ ȅ ˩
ě ê
e e

[]

  , , [29]. - (, ) , ( )[29].

i (<ı>) , . : tˢ ( ), bʱ (), ˀa ( ), ᵊ ( ), oʊ ().

ɹ̩ n̩ e̯ ʊ̯
tʰ dʰ d̚
dⁿ dˡ
n̥ d̥ s̬ t̬
b̤ a̤ b̰ a̰
t̪ d̪ t̼ d̼
t̺ d̺ t̻ d̻
u̟ t̟ i̠ t̠
ë ä e̽ ɯ̽ -
e̝ ɹ̝ ˔
e̞ β̞ ˕ (β̞ = - )
ɔ̹ x̹ ɔ̜ x̜ʷ
tʷ dʷ tʲ dʲ
tˠ dˠ tˁ dˁ
ɫ z̴
e̘ o̘ e̙ o̙
z̃ ɚ ɝ

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(. Consonants)

IPA chart 2005 consonants.png

(. Vowels)

IPA chart 2005 vowels.png

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  1. , , sh th [ʃ] [θ]/[ð] .
  2. ,   , , , , . (   [ɾ]) . , , .
  3. , ; .
  4. « , . ; , , » // IPA 1949
  5. , [ʔ] , «Q»  quæstio  «».

[]

  1. 1 2 3 4 International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 MacMahon Michael K. C. Phonetic Notation // The World's Writing Systems / P. T. Daniels and W. Bright (eds.).  New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.  P. 821846.  ISBN 0-19-507993-0
  3. Wall Joan International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction.  Pst.  ISBN 1877761508
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 194196
  5. «Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages» // International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 195196
  6. Passy, Paul (1888). «Our revised alphabet». The Phonetic Teacher: 5760.
  7. 1 2 Pullum and Ladusaw. Phonetic Symbol Guide. P. 152, 209
  8. Nicolaidis, Katerina Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap. International Phonetic Association (September 2005). 25 2011. 17 2006.
  9. International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 186
  10. «From its earliest daysthe International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word» // International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 27
  11. Laver. Principles of Phonetics. P. 174175
  12. «The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones» // International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 196
  13. Information Development News, Information Development (December 2004), . 233238.
  14. 1 2 Sally Thomason Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet. Language Log (January 2, 2008). 25 2011.
  15. Phonetics. Cambridge Dictionaries Online (2002). 25 2011. 11 2007.
  16. Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols. 25 2011. 4 2007.
    Agnes Michael Webster's New World College Dictionary.  New York, NY: Macmillan USA, 1999.  P. xxiii.  ISBN 0-02-863119-6
    Pronunciation respelling for English has detailed comparisons.
  17. Pronunciation Key. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Bartleby.com (2000). 25 2011. 19 2006.
  18.  (.) Fronek J. Velký anglicko-český slovník.  Praha: Leda, 2006.  ISBN 80-7335-022-X
  19. Nico Castels Complete Libretti Series. Castel Opera Arts. 25 2011. 29 2008-09-29.
  20. Timothy Cheek. Singing in Czech.  2001.  P. 392.  ISBN 0-8108-4003-0, ISBN 978-0-8108-4003-4
  21. How It Works : Thinkmap Visual Thesaurus
  22. Benjamin Zimmer. Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus. Language Log. University of Pennsylvania (14 2008). 25 2011. 29 2009.
  23. «Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels» // International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 3
  24. International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 6.
  25. Fromkin Victoria An Introduction to Language.  6th edition.  Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1998.  ISBN 0-03-018682-X
  26. Peter Ladefoged, Ian Maddieson. The sounds of the worlds languages.  Oxford, 1996.  P. 329330.  ISBN 0-631-19815-6
  27. Amanda L. Miller et al., Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops. // Submitted to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, March 2007.
  28. International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 10
  29. 1 2 International Phonetic Association. Handbook. P. 1415

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