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́ ́ ́[ 1] (. Julius Robert Oppenheimer, 22 1904 18 1967) -, , ( 1941 ). , ; - « ».[1] A - 1945 ; , -:
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. , , . « ». , 1954 , (. security clearance). , , . ; .
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. - 22 1904 . , . (Julius Seligmann Oppenheimer, 18651948), () 1888 . (Ella Friedman, . 1948) 1840- . , (Frank Oppenheimer), .[8]
1912 , 155 -[ 3], 88- . .[9] , , .[10]
. (Alcuin Preparatory School), , 1911 , (Ethical Culture Society School).[11] (Felix Adler) , (Ethical Culture movement), « » (. Deed before Creed). , 1907 1915 .[12] , .[13] [11], .[14] (Harvard College) , 18 , , . -, - .[15]
(, . academic major) , . « », , « » (Phi Beta Kappa Society). ; , . , , . (. summa cum laude) .[16]
[]
1924 , (Christ's College) . . , , , .[17] , .[18] . . , .[19] , , . ; , ( ) .[20]
, , , . , . , , (Francis Fergusson) . , . , .[21] .[22] « , »[ 4], .[23]
1926 , ø . ø . , : , , , , , . «» ; .[24] , ø , , , . , , - .[25]
1927 , 23 , .[26] , 11 , , , , : « , . ».[27]
[]
[]
1927 - (United States National Research Council) («»). , , 192728 , 1927, 1928 .[28] ; «» , , ; , , . ( ) , , , (Ava Helen Pauling), . , , . .[29] , , , , . (Chemistry Division) , , , .[30]
1928 , , , . «» (. Opje)[31], «» (. Oppie).[32] , , , . , , , .[33]
- , , , , .[30] , ; - -, , .[ 5] , , : «Hot dog!» (. « !», « ») «Perro Caliente», «hot dog» .[34] , « » « ».[ 6][35] , , . , , , . , , : , .[36] «», .[37] :
, , , . , , . - , , . [ 7] [ 8]. , . , , , , .[38]
(.)Probably the most important ingredient he brought to his teaching was his exquisite taste. He always knew what were the important problems, as shown by his choice of subjects. He truly lived with those problems, struggling for a solution, and he communicated his concern to the group. In its heyday, there were about eight or ten graduate students in his group and about six Post-doctoral Fellows. He met this group once a day in his office, and discussed with one after another the status of the students research problem. He was interested in everything, and in one afternoon they might discuss quantum electrodynamics, cosmic rays, electron pair production and nuclear physics.
- - , , .[23] 1936 (full professor) 3300 . . , 6 , .[39]
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, , , , , . , . , , .[40]
ø , . « »[41], , . , , . .[42]
1920- , , . ø , K- («K-», . K-edge).[43] , . , ( , ) . 1928 , , .[44] 1931 [45] , , -, , . , , - .
, , , . , [ 9] , . 1940- , .[47] 1931 (Harvey Hall) « »[48], , , () , , , , . , , , , , , 1955 .[40]
1930 [49], , , . 1928 , , , . , , .[50] , , , . , , , . , , , ( ). , , . 1932 , , , 1936 .[51][52]
(Milton S. Plesset) (Leo Nedelsky) - . , - , , ( 1937 )[53]. 1934 Ը (Wendell H. Furry) [54] , ( ). , , . 1937 , , , , .[55][56]
, , (Melba Phillips) , . , , , . 1935 .[57] . , , , . , , , , .[58][59]
1930- , , , . , 1938 « »[60], , . , « »[61], . , , , , , , , , . , 1939 (Hartland Snyder) « »[62], , . ( , ) , , , , . , ; 1950- , .[63][64]
, , . , , , , , - . « , , ».[ 10][40]
, , , , .[65] . , , , .[66] 1933 (Arthur W. Ryder) . -; , .[67] , :
, , , , , , , . , , , , , [ ] , .[68]
(.)Oppenheimer was overeducated in those fields, which lie outside the scientific tradition, such as his interest in religion, in the Hindu religion in particular, which resulted in a feeling of mystery of the universe that surrounded him like a fog. He saw physics clearly, looking toward what had already been done, but at the border he tended to feel there was much more of the mysterious and novel than there actually was ... [he turned] away from the hard, crude methods of theoretical physics into a mystical realm of broad intuition.
, , , , , , , , .[69][70] , .[71] , , , .[72] 1945, 1951 1967 , .[73]
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1920- . , , , - 1929 . , 1936 . , 1934 , . 1934 3 , 3000 , , . 1934 , , . , , , « ».[ 11][74]
1931 , , , -, .[75] 1937 , 392 602 , , .[76] , 1930- , . , , , «». . , , , , .[77] 1936 (Jean Tatlock), (Stanford University School of Medicine), . ; «Western Worker», .[78]
1939 . «» (Katherine «Kitty» Puening Harrison), . . Ÿ . , (Joe Dallet), , .[79] , . 1938 (Richard Harrison), -. 1939 (), , -. , . 1940 -. , , , . , (), 1 1940 .[80]
, (Peter), 1941 [81], , «» (Katherine «Toni»), 7 1944 - (-).[80] .[82] - .[83] 30- 40- , , [84], , (Mary Ellen Washburn)[85] .[86] , , [87], , . . «-» , .[88]
1942 , , « ».[ 12][89] 23 1953 , , , , - , - , « ».[ 13][90] «People's World»[91], , 1954 : « ».[ 14][92] 1937 1942 , « » , , , « »[ 15] , (Haakon Chevalier)[93][94] (Gordon Griffiths) «» () .[95]
() , . ( ), 1940 , , [ 16] (Isaac Folkoff). CDI (Custodial Detention Index) , , : « : ».[ 17][96] ; , , ; , , . , 1942 .[97] 1954 , , «» , , .[98]
, , , , , - . , 1943 , . .[99] 4 1944 ; .[100] 1943 , (George Eltenton), , - . , , , , , .[101] , , - . 20 1943 :
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[] -
9 1941 , , .[104] 1942 (National Defense Research Committee) . (James Bryant Conant), , , . , , .[105] «Coordinator of Rapid Rupture» (« ») . . , , , , (Emil Konopinski), , , , , .[106]
1942 « » (Manhattan Engineer District), , (Office of Scientific Research and Development) .[107] . - .[108] , , . , , , , (Military Policy Committee), . , , , , , , , . , .[109] , , « »[ 18]; , , , . « , ».[ 19][110]
, - . 1942 -, . 16 1942 , . , , , , . , , (mesa) -, - (Los Alamos Ranch School).[ 20] , .[111] «- » ; . , «» (. luminaries).[112]
- , . , . ( 128 , 58 ), , - .[113] (Robert Bacher) . , , (United States Department of War).[114] , . - 1943 6 1945.[113]
, , . ; .
« ». . , . , . , ; , .[115]
(.)Oppenheimer directed these studies, theoretical and experimental, in the real sense of the words. Here his uncanny speed in grasping the main points of any subject was a decisive factor; he could acquaint himself with the essential details of every part of the work.
He did not direct from the head office. He was intellectually and even physically present at each decisive step. He was present in the laboratory or in the seminar rooms, when a new effect was measured, when a new idea was conceived. It was not that he contributed so many ideas or suggestions; he did so sometimes, but his main influence came from something else. It was his continuous and intense presence, which produced a sense of direct participation in all of us; it created that unique atmosphere of enthusiasm and challenge that pervaded the place throughout its time.
1943 (. gun-type), «» (Thin Man). -239, , . 1944 - X-10, : 240Pu, .[117] 1944 , (. implosion-type). (. explosive lens) , , . , .[118] 1944 - , (, ).[119] , -235; 1945 «» (Little Boy).[120] , « » («Christy gadget», , Robert F. Christy)[121], 28 1945 .[122]
1945 « » (Interim Committee), . , , , , , , . , .[123] , , , , , , .[124]
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- 16 1945 , , 1944 «» (Trinity).[ 21] , « » . (Gregg Herken), ( ), 30- .[125] , , , , -:
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, , , : kālo'smi lokakṣayakṛtpravṛddho lokānsamāhartumiha pravṛtta IAST[126], : « , ».[ 2]
, . , . . , -; , , , , : « , ». , , , - .[2]
(.)We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed, a few people cried. Most people were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad-Gita; Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince that he should do his duty and, to impress him, takes on his multi-armed form and says, 'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.' I suppose we all thought that, one way or another.'
, : « ».[ 22] , (Thomas Farrell), , :
, , , , . . , . , : «!» , , .[127]
(.)Dr. Oppenheimer, on whom had rested a very heavy burden, grew tenser as the last seconds ticked off. He scarcely breathed. He held on to a post to steady himself. For the last few seconds, he stared directly ahead and then when the announcer shouted "Now!" and there came this tremendous burst of light followed shortly thereafter by the deep growling roar of the explosion, his face relaxed into an expression of tremendous relief.
- 1946 « » (Presidential Medal for Merit).[128]
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, , .[100] Life Time.[129][130] , , . , , , , , .[131]
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1945 -, [132], , , .[133] 1947 (Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss) (-). (Ruth Tolman), , - .[134] 20 000 , («») XVII (. groundskeeper), 265 (107 ) .[135]
. , , . -, , . , , « ». , .[136]
- 194749 , . (, ) . , , . , . , , . (Robert Marshak) : . 1947 , .[137]
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, , (AchesonLilienthal Report). « » (Atomic Development Authority), , , , . , 1946 . (Baruch Plan) , , . . , - .[138] .[139]
1947 (Atomic Energy Commission, AEC) , (General Advisory Committee, GAC). , , , , GAC .[140] , , . , , , , . , , . , . , . , .[141] , , 1949 .[142] GAC, , , , . , .[143]
1951 , , , (TellerUlam design) .[144] , . :
, 1949 ., , , . , , . 1951 . , . , , .[145]
(.)The program we had in 1949 was a tortured thing that you could well argue did not make a great deal of technical sense. It was therefore possible to argue that you did not want it even if you could have it. The program in 1951 was technically so sweet that you could not argue about that. The issues became purely the military, the political and the humane problems of what you were going to do about it once you had it.
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( ) , , , , , . 1940- : , , .[146] , , , - , , ; « , , , , , ».[ 23][147]
7 1949 , , 1930- .[148] , , , (Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz), , (Bernard Peters) (Joseph Weinberg), , . , . . , . «» (Exploratorium) -.[86][149]
1949 1953 . , - , , - 1951 , . . - . «» , , - . «» , . , , . , , , 1952 .[150]
1950 (Paul Crouch), 1941 1942 , , .[151] (Congressional committee), . .[152] , -, , .[153] 1953 . , (William Liscum Borden), (Congress' Joint Atomic Energy Committee). , « , , . ».[ 24][154]
(Brien McMahon), « » 1946 (Atomic Energy Act, 1946), . 21 1953 , , . (Kenneth David Nichols), (. general manager) , . .[155][156] , 1954 , , . - , , , , . , , , , . , , . , , : , , ; , , . - .[157]
28 1954 . , , « ».[ 25] , , :
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, , , .[1] , . , , 1943 , , , .[159] , . ( , « »[ 26], « »[ 27]) , , . .[160] , , « , ».[ 28][161]
«» -. , , , « », . , «» «», , -, , .[162] : « ».[ 29][163]
. . , , , , «, , ».[164] . (Woodrow Wilson Institute) 20 2009 (John Earl Haynes), (Harvey Klehr) , , , , . , . , , .[165]
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1954 -, . 1957 2 (0,81 ) (Gibney Beach), .[166][ 30] , .[167]
, , , , 1960 (World Academy of Art and Science). 1950- , 1955 . 1957 , .[168]
, , , , . 1953 -- (Reith Lectures), « » (Science and the Common Understanding).[169] 1955 « » (The Open Mind), , , 1946 . « ». « , , ».[ 31] 1957 (William James Lectures), , (Edwin Ginn), (Archibald Roosevelt), .[170] « » (The Hope of Order) (Sanders Theatre), , 1200 .[168] 1962 (Whidden Lectures) , « : » (The Flying Trapeze: Three Crises for Physicists) 1964 .[171]
, , . , , , .[172] 1957 [173], 3 1962 (Foreign Member of the Royal Society).[174] 1963 , , . , , , . , , .[175] « , - ».[ 32][176] : « , , , , , ».[ 33][177] , , , ; 50 000 , . , , , , , .[178] 1959 , , , , , ; . .[179]
; 1965 , , 1966 - .[180] ; 15 1967 18 (-) 62 . (Alexander Hall) , 600 : , , , , , , . , -, ' (John O'Hara) - (New York City Ballet) . , , .[181] , . - , .[182]
, 1972 , , - , - . , , , . 1977 , , , ; « - ».[ 34][183] , , ; (Community Center).[184]
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1954 , , . , .[185] , (- ), , .[186] , , ; , . , , , .[187] « » (. red-baiting) 1940- 1950-, , . , (Bernard Peters), . , , «» . : , , , .[188]
«» ( ) «» ( ) .[190] « » (Galileo, 1955), «» (Die Physiker, 1962) , 1988 , « » (Doctor Atomic, 2005) , , (Pamela Rosenberg), « »[191]. « » (In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 1964) (Heinar Kipphardt) 1964 . , , .[192] Ÿ - 1968 , . «- » (Clive Barnes) « », , « ».[ 35][193] . , «, ».[ 36][194] :
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-- «» (Oppenheimer) (Sam Waterston) , 1980 , BAFTA Television.[196][197] « » (The Day After Trinity) «» .[198][199] 1989 « », , .[200] , , « : . » (American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer, 2005) (Kai Bird) . (Martin J. Sherwin), « ».[201] 2004 [202], 100- , 2005 « : 100- » (Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections).[203] .[204]
- , . , , , [205], , , , , , , .[69] (67085) [206] .[207]
, , « » (. Big Science). . - , , , , , (. proximity fuze) . - , « » , , , .[185]
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:
:
- Oppenheimer J. Robert. Science and the Common Understanding. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954.
- Oppenheimer J. Robert. The Open Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955.
- Oppenheimer J. Robert. The Flying Trapeze: Three Crises for Physicists. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. : . : / . . . , . . . . .: , 1967. 79 . 100 000 .
- Oppenheimer J. Robert, Rabi I. I. Oppenheimer. New York: Scribner, 1969.
- Oppenheimer J. Robert, Smith Alice Kimball, Weiner Charles. Robert Oppenheimer, Letters and Recollections. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-674-77605-4
- Oppenheimer J. Robert. Uncommon Sense. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Birkhauser Boston, 1984. ISBN 0-8176-3165-8
- Oppenheimer J. Robert. Atom and Void: Essays on Science and Community. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-691-08547-1
:
- Born M., Oppenheimer J. R. Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln // Annalen der Physik. 1927. Vol. 389 (84). P. 457484.
- Oppenheimer J. R. On the Theory of Electrons and Protons // Physical Review. 1930. Vol. 35. P. 562563.
- Ehrenfest P., Oppenheimer J. R. Note on the Statistics of Nuclei // Physical Review. 1931. Vol. 37. P. 333338.
- Oppenheimer J. R., Hall H. Relativistic Theory of the Photoelectric Effect // Physical Review. 1931. Vol. 38. P. 5779.
- Furry W. H., Oppenheimer J. R. On the Theory of the Electron and Positive // Physical Review. 1934. Vol. 45. P. 245262.
- Oppenheimer J. R., Phillips M. Note on the Transmutation Function for Deuterons // Physical Review. 1935. Vol. 48. P. 500502.
- Carlson J. F., Oppenheimer J. R. On Multiplicative Showers // Physical Review. 1937. Vol. 51. P. 220231.
- Oppenheimer J. R., Serber R. On the Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores // Physical Review. 1938. Vol. 54. P. 540.
- Oppenheimer J. R., Volkoff G. M. On Massive Neutron Cores // Physical Review. 1939. Vol. 55. P. 374381. : ., . // : . . .: , 1979. . 337352.
- Oppenheimer J. R., Snyder H. On Continued Gravitational Contraction // Physical Review. 1939. Vol. 56. P. 455459. : ., . // : . . .: , 1979. . 353361.
[]
- «» (. J) «. » . (Alice Kimball Smith) (Charles Weiner) « : » (Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and recollections), 1, : « , , , . , , , , , -». . (Peter Goodchild) «. : » (J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds) , , , «» , ; , . , «» , , . 18 1963 , . 1930- 40- , «», , , , «» «». , « ».
- 1 2 : «Now, I am become Death, the destroyer (shatterer) of worlds»; « » (The Decision to Drop the Bomb, 1965).[2] «» 8 1948 .[3] (Robert Jungk) « . -» 1958 [4][5], .[6] « », , , -: « ». , .[7]
- : .
- : «I need physics more than friends».
- : .
- : «physics and desert country ... two great loves»; « » « » (. desert country) .
- - (graduate students), (PhD).
- : post-doctoral fellows , PhD .
- , , , , , , . . , (. : ).[46]
- : «His physics was good, but his arithmetic awful».
- : «one Jew in the department was enough».
- : «a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the West Coast».
- : «a half-jocular overstatement».
- : «I was associated with the Communist movement».
- : «discussion group».
- 1940 , . : .
- : «Nationalistic Tendency: Communist».
- : «overweening ambition».
- : «a real stroke of genius on the part of General Groves, who was not generally considered to be a genius».
- ( ): .
- «»: .
- : «It worked.»
- : «less important than electronic devices but more important than, let us say, vitamins».
- : «based upon years of study, of the available classified evidence, that more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union».
- : «I know Oppenheimer as an intellectually most alert and very complicated person».
- : «cock and bull story», . . , ; « ».
- : «was an idiot».
- : «if you don't want to consult the guy, you don't consult him».
- : «In England, Oppenheimer would have been knighted».
- 1 2 « » (Oppenheimer Beach): .
- : «The purposes of this country in the field of foreign policy cannot in any real or enduring way be achieved by coercion».
- : «for contributions to theoretical physics as a teacher and originator of ideas, and for leadership of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the atomic energy program during critical years».
- : «I think it is just possible, Mr. President, that it has taken some charity and some courage for you to make this award today».
- : «the people of St. John for a public park and recreation area».
- : «angry play and a partisan play tragic fool and genius».
- : «improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved».
- , , ; , -, .
:
- 1 2 3 , 2002
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