́ ́, ́ , [1]. .
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, , , , [1]. 4261 ( «» 2007 )[2] 4087 ( «» 1958 )[3].
, ATOW1996; ( , ) 817 .
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[] 1900
, , XV [4]. , XIV , (Polus Arcticus)[4].
XV , . , , XVI , .
XVII , . , . 1607 , « ». , . , , 80°23' . .[5]
. , , [5]. II 1765 1766 , 80°30' . .[6].
1773 80°48' . . 1818 , , 80°34' . . [6].
, , , 1827 . , 1827 «» (Hecla), . , , 23 82°45' . ., , . , [7][8].
18751876 , , «» (Alert) «» (Discovery). , , , (Albert Markham) 12 1876 83°2026" . ., [9][10].
- 8 1879 «» (Jeannette) - . , , . 21 -, . 12 1881 «» , , , . 12 1881 . . , . . -, , , , 14 . , -, , , [11][12].
1884 «» , . , , . . «». «» , , , . , , «» , , , . 24 1893 «» . , 28 . 14 1895 , «» 84°4' . ., , . 660 50 , -. 120 . , . , . 7 86°14' . . , , . , , , , -[13].
1899 « » . -, , , . , , . 11 1900 . - ( ) , . , , , , . 25 86°34' . ., 35 , , 23 , , [14].
, Farthest North, , . , , , , - . , , .
[] 19001940
, 21 1908 , (Ahwellah) (Etukishook), . , .
, , 6 1909 , (Matthew Henson) (Ootah), (Egingwah), (Seegloo) (Ooqueah). [15]. , , , (246 )[16], , , ( ) [17]. . 17 [17], , , 246 , 50 , , [17]. , 80 [17], .
19121914 . « » (« »). 2 1914 , , . , , . 20 , , . . , , [18].
21 1937 ( 30 ) - « -1» () . , , . 2850 , 19 1938 «» «»[19].
[] 19402000
, ( ), «-2» , , , [20] [21]. 23 1948 , . , () 16:44 (. .)[22] 90°0000" . . 26 .
, 9 1949 , , , [23].
3 1958 «Nautilus» () , ( )[3]. , «Skate», 17 1959 , [24]. 17 1962 « » , [25].
, , (Ralph Plaisted), (Walter Pederson), (Gerald Pitzl) - (Jean-Luc Bombardier). Bombardier 19 1968 . , . () , 42 . [26][27].
, , [28]. , ʸ (Roy Koerner), (Allan Gill) (Kenneth Hedges) 6 1969 , , , . 5600 . . 21 1968 . , 1900 , , - . 4 , - , . , , , , . 29 1969 476 [27].
, , 1978 , 57 725 , , . 7 1 1978 , . ()[32].
, , [33], , , , , [34]. 77 , 16 31 1979 . 1500 [33].
, ( ), (Will Steger) 1986 . , (Paul Schurke), (Brent Boddy), (Richard Weber), (Geoff Carroll) (Ann Bancroft), 1 1986 . , .
, , - (Jean-Louis Étienne) 11 1986 . 63 . [35].
, , , (Børge Ousland) 1994 [28]. 2 22 1994 , 52 , [36].
22 1998 . 50 , . , 24 1999 , (Michael Wolff) (), (Brett Cormick) () (Bob Wass) () [37].
[] XXI
, , [38]. , , 8- - (Alicia Hempleman-Adams) ()[39], 89- (Dorothy Davenhill Hirsch) ()[40]. C 2002 [41].
54 , 4 Oden, 1 Louis S. St Laurent, 3 Polarstern, 3 Healy Polar Sea Vidar Viking[42].
. 22 2007 , 14 2008 , [44].
26 2009 . ( , , , , , ) 38 2033 - «-1» «-2» [45].
[]
, (Nils Strindberg) (Knut Frænkel), 11 1897 «» . , 475 , - 14 , . , [46].
21 1925 Dornier Do J N-24 N-25. , 87° 43 . . ( 250 ). , . , . , , , , [47].
9 1926 , , «», (Floyd Bennett) Fokker F.VII. . , , . [48]. 1996 , , , . , 80 % - [49].
1926 «»[50]. 16 , , , , , -, , (Titina), . , 12 1926 , [47].
1928 , «». 24 , . 16 , «»[51].
-6 (-7) -166 « -1». : . . , . . , . . . . 5 1937 , 16 32 , .
. 18 1937 -25 . 20 , 63 16 , 8504 , . ()[54]. (1214 1937 ) , -25 , . - (), 62 17 10 148 [55].
[56].
[]
, . , , , . . 15 . « » 800 . - . 1950 1991 , . 2003 .
, , , « -39» 16 , 2011 [57][58].
[]
186 10 [1], 18 26 , , , 193 [1]. 178 14 [1], , 172 [1]. (20 21 ) - , , (20 21 ). , (22 23 )[59]. , . 1516 . , .
[]
. , - (, ). , , , , . [59], - . , , , .
[]
43 °C 26 °C, 40 °C[1]. 0 °C[1], + 2 °C[1]. + 5 °C, 13.5 °C.
23 [59], . , , , [59]. , - , . , , [59]. 2007 [60]. , . [59].
[]
, - 82° . ., , «» 2006 , [61]. ( 1992 )[62], 60 [63].
: (1987), (1991, 1992, 2001) (1992)[64]. , , , [64].
[]
, . , , , ( ) 370- , International Seabed Authority.
370- [66]. ( 1996 [67]), ( 1997 [67]), ( 2003 [67]) ( 2004 [67]) [68][69].
1907 « » , . , [70].
[]
- . , , . ( ), . ( )[71].
[] .
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