GNU Free Documentation License . .

( «»)
: ,
, ,

́ ́ ( . evolutio «») , , , , .

, , . (), [1]. ( ) ( ). , [2].

.   , : 1) , ; 2) , ; 3)   . , , .   , . , .

, , [3]. , , . , , , , . , , , [4].

[]

, , -. , , . , , [5]. [6]. , , [7]. , , «», «» ( ) «» (. species)[8][9]. , . . , , , [10].

XVII , , . , .   «» (. species), , , . , [11][12]. [13][14].

, , . 1751 , , . , [15]. , ( «»)[16]. 1809 « ». , ( ) . , . [17][18] ( ). , . , , , , . [19].

, . « » , , « », , , , . , , , . [20][21]. 1838 , 1858 . [22]. 1859 « », , .

. « »[23]. 1865 , 1900 [24]. () , , . , . , . , . , , [25]. , . . . , , , , , [26].

1920-  30- XX , , . 1953 . . . . 1973 : « », , , , [27].

[1][28]. , 1960- , [29], 1972 [30]. XX . hox- [31][32].

[]

, , . . , , , ( ), , - [33]. , . , . , , . [34][35].   . , . , . [36] , . , , .

  «» , .   , . . . ( ) , , . , , , . , , , . , , .

. , .

[]

  . . , [37]. . [38].

. . . , , , . , . .

[38].   , .   .

, , . , . . , , . (), . , , , .

, ( )[39][40].   .

, . [41]. , , - [42][43].

. , [44]. , , , . , , [45][46].

[]

  , . , : ( , , ), ( , , , ), [47]. , . , ( ), ( ).

. [40]. . , . . ,   [48].

, . , [49], [50]. , [51]. , , 5 %[52].

[]

. .   . , , , , , [53][54][55]. , . , , , , , 70 % , [56]. [53].   [57]. - [58], , , , [59].

. , , [60]. . , [61]. , : . [62]. , . , . , [63][64]. [65][66]. . [67][68]. ( ), .   , , . 100 , [69].

. , . (  (.).). , Homo [70]. , . . , [71].

, , , , [72]. , 1 Alu-, , [73]. , [54].

[]

. . , , , [74]. , [75]. , [76][77]. [78].

, .   . , , . , , [79]. , , . , . genetic hitchhiking (.). (« »)[80].

, Y- , , [81]. [82]. , . [83][84], , ׸ [85].

[]

. , , . [86].

. : , , , , ; , [86][87].

[]

[]

  , , . «» , , :

  1. , ;
  2. ;
  3. , , .

[88]. , , , , , [89].

  [90]. , [90]. , ( )[91]. , , , , [90].

- , , . , . ,   , [92]. ,   , [93].

, (, ), [94]:

  1.   , ;
  2.   , , ;
  3.   , .

, , [95]. , , . , , , [96], [97].

, , , , [98][99][100]. [101]. , , , (. #)[102].

[]

20 10 () 100 () .

  , [103]. . , «» ( ). ,   . , [104].

, , [105]. , [106]. , . , , , , - , [106].

[107], [108].

, , [29]. ,   [109][110]. , [111][112].   n  (.)., [113]. , , genetic hitchhiking (.).[103][114][115].

[]

, . [116]. , , , [117]. , Saccharomyces cerevisiae Callosobruchus chinensis[118][119]. , , [120]. [121] .

, . , [122].

[]

.   (, ), . . , , , .

, , , , , , , , , [123]. [124].   [125]. , , . , , , .

, . , [~ 1], [126][127][128][129]. , « » , «» [130]. , [131] [132].

[]

: a, b  , ;   [133]

  , . «» , . , . «»  . [134]. :

  1.   , .
  2.   : , .
  3.   , , [135].

, . , , , . , , , [136]. Escherichia coli, [137]; Flavobacterium, , [138][139], Sphingobium, [140][141]. , , , , ( )[142][143][144][145].

. , . , . , , [146]. [147], , , , , , .  (.).[148][149].

, [150]. , . [151], [152], [153], [133]. [154], [150], [150], , [155] [156].

, , , , , , , , [157]. , [158] [159], , [123].

  , , [160]. , .

[]

, . , , . , , ,  . . [161]. :   ,   . , , [162].

[]

[163][164]. . , , [165]. , . , [166].

.   , , , .

, , -, , [167]. , , , , , [168]. , , , , , [169].

[]

  . , [170][171][172].

«», , [173]. , , ,   , . , : , [174]. , 1942 ,  . ,   « , »[175]. , , [176].

. , . , , . , ,   . . , . , , [177]. , [178]. [179].

: , ,

.  (.)., , , - . [180][181]. , , [182].

  , . , . , [183].

   (.).. , , . , [184]. . : (. Anthoxanthum odoratum) - [185]. . , , , [186].

    . , [187][188]. , [189].

. , , . [190], [191].   Arabidopsis thaliana Arabidopsis arenosa Arabidopsis suecica[192]. 20 [193] [194].

[]

. -

  . [195]. ́ , - , [196], , ,   [197]. , [198]. - , , ,     96 % [198].  (.).  , . 1001000 , , XXI 30 % [199]. [200][201], [202].

, . ( )[1]. , , [98]. , [203].

[]

[]

  , , , , [204]. , , [205]. , [206]. , , [207].

[]

[147]. , [208]. . -, . -,   , , . -, , . , -, [209]. , « » - [210][211].

«» . , , [212]. , , , , . , .

. , [213]. , . [214]. , 96 %, , , [215].

[]

3,5  [216]. 2,5  , .

. , , , . ,     [217][218].

. 610  [219][220].

10  , . , [221][222]. , [223][224].

500  , [225]. [226]. 360  , 330  .   ( ) ( )[227].

[]

. () , . , , 65 85  [228]. 30  [228], 19 [229]. 7  , Homo[230]. , , , 2  Homo[230]. 200 .  (.).[231]. , 190 .   [232].

[]

, , , [233].

[234]. , , .

, , , , , [235]. , - [236]. , , , . , [237].

1960- [238]. . . . . , [239].

[]

. 1871

XIX , 1859 « », , , «» , . , . , , , [1]. , .

, . , , , , [123][240][241]. , , , . , , -  (.)., , [242]. , , , .

, « » 1990- - « » (. Intelligent design), , . , , , [243].

[] .

[]

  1. , , , , , . ., , . ..: , 2005.  . 354358.  380 .  10 000 .

[]

  1. 1 2 3 4 Kutschera U, Niklas KJ The modern theory of biological evolution: an expanded synthesis  (.) // Naturwissenschaften. 2004. . 91. № 6. . 255-276.
  2. Futuyma, 2005, . 2
  3. National Academy of Science Institute of Medicine. Science, Evolution, and Creationism.  National Academy Press, 2008.  ISBN 0309105862
  4. Futuyma, Douglas. Evolution, Science, and Society: Evolutionary Biology and the National Research Agenda.  Office of University Publications, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 1999.  P. 46.
  5. , 1999, . 118-119
  6. , 1999, . 124-125
  7. , 1999, . 127
  8. Torrey H. B., Felin F. Was Aristotle an evolutionist? // The Quarterly Review of Biology. 1937. . 12. № 1. . 1-18.
  9. Hull D. L. The metaphysics of evolution // The British Journal for the History of Science. 1967. . 3. № 4. . 309-337.
  10. Stephen F. Mason. A history of the sciences.  Collier Books, 1968.  . 44-45.  638 .
  11. , 1999, . 171-172
  12. Ernst Mayr The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution, and inheritance.  Harvard University Press, 1982.  . 256-257.  ISBN 0674364465
  13. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)  (.). University of California Museum of Paleontology. 29 2012.
  14. , 1999, . 181-183
  15. Peter J. Bowler. Evolution: The History of an Idea.  University of California Press, 1989.  . 71-72.  432 .  ISBN 0520236939
  16. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)  (.). University of California Museum of Paleontology. 29 2012.
  17. , 1999, . 201-209
  18. Gould, 2002, . 170-189
  19. , 1999, . 210-217
  20. Peter J. Bowler. Evolution: The History of an Idea.  University of California Press, 1989.  . 145-146.  432 .  ISBN 0520236939
  21. Mayr, 2001, . 165
  22. , 1999, . 278-279
  23. , 1999, . 282-283
  24. , 1999, . 283
  25. Stamhuis IH, Meijer OG, Zevenhuizen EJ. Hugo de Vries on heredity, 1889-1903. Statistics, Mendelian laws, pangenes, mutations // Isis. 1999. . 90. № 2. . 238-267.
  26. , 1999, . 405-407
  27. Dobzhansky, T. Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution // The American Biology Teacher. 1973. . 35. № 3. . 125129.
  28. Avise, J. C.; Ayala, F. J. In the Light of Evolution IV. The Human Condition (introduction) // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 2010. . 107. . 88978901.
  29. 1 2 . : : . .  .: , 1985.  394 .
  30. Eldredge N., Gould S. J. Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism // Models in paleobiology / Schopf T. J. M., ed.  San Francisco: Freeman Cooper, 1972.  P. 82115.
  31. West-Eberhard M.-J. Developmental plasticity and evolution.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.  ISBN 978-0-19-512235-0
  32. Palmer R. A. Symmetry breaking and the evolution of development // Science. 2004. . 306. . 828833. DOI:10.1126/science.1103707 Bibcode2004Sci...306..828P PMID 15514148.
  33. , 1982, . 78-80
  34. , 1982, . 125-126
  35. , 1991
  36. ..
  37. Sturm RA, Frudakis TN Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry // Trends Genet. 2004. . 20(8). . 327-332.
  38. 1 2 Pearson H Genetics: what is a gene? // Nature. 2006. . 441 (7092). . 398401.
  39. Patrick C. Phillips Epistasisthe essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems // Nat Rev Genet. 2008. № 9(11). . 855867.
  40. 1 2 Wu R, Lin M Functional mapping how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits // Nat. Rev. Genet. 2006. . 7 (3). . 229-237.
  41. Jablonka E., Raz G. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms and implications for the study of heredity and evolution // The Quarterly Review of Biology. 2009. . 84. № 2. . 131176.
  42. Bossdorf O., Arcuri D., Richards C. L., Pigliucci M. Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in Arabidopsis thaliana // Evolutionary Ecology. 2010. . 24. № 3. . 541553.
  43. Jablonka E., Lamb M. Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioural and symbolic.  MIT Press, 2005.
  44. Laland K. N., Sterelny K. Perspective: Seven reasons (not) to neglect niche construction // Evolution. 2006. . 60. № 8. . 17511762.
  45. Chapman M. J., Margulis L. Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis // International Microbiology. 1998. . 1. № 4. . 319326.
  46. Wilson D. S., Wilson E. O. Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology // The Quarterly Review of Biology. 2007. . 82. № 4.
  47. , 2005
  48. AmosW, Harwood J Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations // Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1998. № 353(1366). . 177186.
  49. Draghi J, Turner P DNA secretion and gene-level selection in bacteria // Microbiology (Reading, Engl.). 2008. . 152. . 2683-26888.
  50. Mallet J Hybrid speciation // Nature. 2007. . 446 (7133). . 279-283.
  51. Butlin RK, Tregenza T Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits // Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 1998. . 353 (1366). . 187-198.
  52. Wetterbom A, Sevov M, Cavelier L, Bergström TF Comparative genomic analysis of human and chimpanzee indicates a key role for indels in primate evolution // J. Mol. Evol. 2006. . 63 (5). . 682-690.
  53. 1 2 Bertram JS The molecular biology of cancer // Mol Aspects Med. 2000. . 21(6). . 167-223.
  54. 1 2 Aminetzach YT, Macpherson JM, Petrov DA Pesticide resistance via transposition-mediated adaptive gene truncation in Drosophila // Science. 2005. . 309(5735). . 764-767.
  55. Burrus V, Waldor MK Shaping bacterial genomes with integrative and conjugative elements // Res Microbiol. 2004. . 155(5). . 376-386.
  56. Sawyer SA, Parsch J, Zhang Z, Hartl DL Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007. . 104(16). . 6504-6510.
  57. Sniegowski PD, Gerrish PJ, Johnson T, Shaver A The evolution of mutation rates: separating causes from consequences // Bioessays. 2000. . 22(12). . 1057-1066.
  58. Drake JW, Holland JJ Mutation rates among RNA viruses // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999. . 96(24). . 13910-13913.
  59. Holland J, Spindler K, Horodyski F, Grabau E, Nichol S, VandePol S Rapid evolution of RNA genomes // Science. 1982. . 215(4540). . 1577-1585.
  60. Hastings PJ, Lupski JR, Rosenberg SM, Ira G Mechanisms of change in gene copy number // Nat Rev Genet. 2009. . 10(8). . 551-564.
  61. Harrison PM, Gerstein M Studying genomes through the aeons: protein families, pseudogenes and proteome evolution // J Mol Biol. 2002. . 318(5). . 1155-1174.
  62. Bowmaker JK Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates // Eye (Lond). 1998. . 12. . 541-547.
  63. Gregory TR, Hebert PD The modulation of DNA content: proximate causes and ultimate consequences // Genome Res. 1999. . 9(4). . 317-324.
  64. Hurles M Gene duplication: the genomic trade in spare parts // PLoS Biol. 2004. . 2(7). . E206.
  65. Adam Siepel Darwinian alchemy: Human genes from noncoding DNA // Genome Res. 2009. . 19. . 16931695.
  66. Liu N, Okamura K, Tyler DM, Phillips MD, Chung WJ, Lai EC The evolution and functional diversification of animal microRNA genes // Cell Res. 2008. . 18(10). . 985-996.
  67. Orengo CA, Thornton JM Protein families and their evolution-a structural perspective // Annu Rev Biochem. 2005. . 74. . 867-900.
  68. Long M, Betrán E, Thornton K, Wang W The origin of new genes: glimpses from the young and old // Nat Rev Genet. 2003. . 4(11). . 865-875.
  69. Weissman KJ, Müller R Protein-protein interactions in multienzyme megasynthetases // Chembiochem. 2008. . 9(6). . 826-848.
  70. Zhang J, Wang X, Podlaha O Testing the chromosomal speciation hypothesis for humans and chimpanzees // Genome Res. 2004. . 14(5). . 845-851.
  71. Ayala FJ, Coluzzi M Chromosome speciation: humans, Drosophila, and mosquitoes // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. . 102. . 6535-6542.
  72. Hurst GD, Werren JH The role of selfish genetic elements in eukaryotic evolution // Nat Rev Genet. 2001. . 2(8). . 597-606.
  73. Häsler J, Strub K Alu elements as regulators of gene expression // Nucleic Acids Res. 2006. . 34(19). . 5491-5497.
  74. Radding, C. M. Homologous pairing and strand exchange in genetic recombination  (.) // Annu Rev Genet. 1982. . 16. P. 405-437.
  75. Agrawal AF Evolution of sex: why do organisms shuffle their genotypes?  (.) // Curr Biol. 2006. . 17. . 16. P. 696-704.
  76. Goddard MR, Godfray HC, Burt A Sex increases the efficacy of natural selection in experimental yeast populations  (.) // Nature. 2005. . 434. P. 636-640.
  77. Peters AD, Otto SP Liberating genetic variance through sex  (.) // Bioessays. 2003. . 6. . 25. P. 533-537.
  78. Fontaneto D, Herniou EA, Boschetti C, Caprioli M, Melone G, Ricci C, Barraclough TG Independently evolving species in asexual bdelloid rotifers  (.) // PLoS Biol. 2007. . 4. . 5. P. 87.
  79. Lien S, Szyda J, Schechinger B, Rappold G, Arnheim N Evidence for heterogeneity in recombination in the human pseudoautosomal region: high resolution analysis by sperm typing and radiation-hybrid mapping  (.) // Am J Hum Genet. 2000. . 2. . 66. P. 557-566.
  80. Barton NH Genetic hitchhiking  (.) // Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2000. . 355. P. 1553-1562.
  81. Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D The degeneration of Y chromosomes  (.) // Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 200. . 355. P. 1563-1572.
  82. Otto SP The advantages of segregation and the evolution of sex  (.) // Genetics. 2003. . 3. . 164. P. 1099-118.
  83. Doncaster CP, Pound GE, Cox SJ The ecological cost of sex  (.) // Nature. 2000. . 404. P. 281-285.
  84. Butlin R Evolution of sex: The costs and benefits of sex: new insights from old asexual lineages  (.) // Nat Rev Genet. 2002. . 4. . 3. P. 311-317.
  85. Salathé M, Kouyos RD, Bonhoeffer S The state of affairs in the kingdom of the Red Queen  (.) // Trends Ecol Evol. 2008. . 8. . 23. P. 439-445.
  86. 1 2 , 1991, 17
  87. , 1991, 23
  88. , 1982, . 43-47
  89. Futuyma, 2005, p. 251-252
  90. 1 2 3 Orr HA Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics // Nat Rev Genet. 2009. Vol. 10(8). P. 531-539.
  91. Haldane J The theory of natural selection today // Nature. 1959. Vol. 183. P. 710-713.
  92. Lande R, Arnold SJ The measurement of selection on correlated characters // Evolution. 1983. Vol. 37. P. 121026}. DOI:10.2307/2408842
  93. Futuyma, 2005
  94. , 1991, 14
  95. Andersson M, Simmons L Sexual selection and mate choice // Trends Ecol Evol. 2001. Vol. 21(6). P. 296-302.
  96. Kokko H, Brooks R, McNamara J, Houston A The sexual selection continuum // Proc Biol Sci. 2002. Vol. 269. P. 1331-1340.
  97. Hunt J, Brooks R, Jennions MD, Smith MJ, Bentsen CL, Bussière LF High-quality male field crickets invest heavily in sexual display but die young // Nature. 2004. Vol. 432. P. 1024-1027.
  98. 1 2 Gould SJ Gulliver's further travels: the necessity and difficulty of a hierarchical theory of selection // Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 1998. . 353. . 307314.
  99. Okasha, S. Evolution and the Levels of Selection.  Oxford University Press, 2007.  263 .  ISBN 0-19-926797-9
  100. Mayr E The objects of selection // Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 1998. . 353. . 30714.
  101. Maynard Smith J The units of selection // Novartis Found. Symp. 1998. . 213. . 211217.
  102. Gould SJ, Lloyd EA Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: how shall we name and generalise the unit of Darwinism? // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1999. . 96. № 21. . 1190411909.
  103. 1 2 Masel J Genetic drift // Current Biology. 2011. . 21. № 20. . R837-R838.
  104. Lande R Fisherian and Wrightian theories of speciation // Genome. 1989. . 31. № 1. . 221-227.
  105. Otto SP, Whitlock MC The probability of fixation in populations of changing size // Genetics. 1997. . 146. № 2. . 723-733.
  106. 1 2 Charlesworth B Fundamental concepts in genetics: effective population size and patterns of molecular evolution and variation // Nat Rev Genet. 2009. . 10. № 3. . 195-205.
  107. Mitchell-Olds T, Willis JH, Goldstein DB Which evolutionary processes influence natural genetic variation for phenotypic traits? // Nat Rev Genet. 2007. . 8. № 11. . 845-856.
  108. Nei M Selectionism and neutralism in molecular evolution // Mol Biol Evol. 2005. . 22. № 12. . 2318-2342.
  109. Kimura M The neutral theory of molecular evolution: a review of recent evidence // Jpn J Genet. 1991. . 66. № 4. . 367-386.
  110. Kimura M The neutral theory of molecular evolution and the world view of the neutralists // Genome. 1989. . 31. № 1. . 24-31.
  111. Kreitman M The neutral theory is dead. Long live the neutral theory // Bioessays. 1996. . 18. № 8. . 678683.
  112. Leigh E.G. (Jr) Neutral theory: a historical perspective // Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 2007. . 20. № 6. . 20752091.
  113. Hurst LD Fundamental concepts in genetics: genetics and the understanding of selection // Nat. Rev. Genet. 2009. . 10. № 2. . 8393.
  114. Gillespie, John H. Is the population size of a species relevant to its evolution? // Evolution. 2001. . 55. № 11. . 21612169.
  115. R. A. Neher and B. I. Shraiman Genetic Draft and Quasi-Neutrality in Large Facultatively Sexual Populations // Genetics. 2011. . 188. . 975996.
  116. Boucher Y, Douady CJ, Papke RT, Walsh DA, Boudreau ME, Nesbo CL, Case RJ, Doolittle WF Lateral gene transfer and the origins of prokaryotic groups // Annu Rev Genet. 2003. . 37. № 1. . 283328.
  117. Walsh T Combinatorial genetic evolution of multiresistance // Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2006. . 9. № 5. . 47682.
  118. Kondo N, Nikoh N, Ijichi N, Shimada M, Fukatsu T Genome fragment of Wolbachia endosymbiont transferred to X chromosome of host insect // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2002. . 99. № 22. . 142805.
  119. Sprague G Genetic exchange between kingdoms // Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1991. . 1. № 4. . 5303.
  120. Gladyshev EA, Meselson M, Arkhipova IR Massive horizontal gene transfer in bdelloid rotifers // Science. 2008. . 320. № 5880. . 12103.
  121. Baldo A, McClure M Evolution and horizontal transfer of dUTPase-encoding genes in viruses and their hosts // J. Virol. . 73. № 9. . 771021.
  122. River, M. C. and Lake, J. A. The ring of life provides evidence for a genome fusion origin of eukaryotes // Nature. 2004. . 431. № 9. . 1525.
  123. 1 2 3 Scott EC, Matzke NJ Biological design in science classrooms // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 207. . 104. . 8669-8676.
  124. Hendry AP, Kinnison MT An introduction to microevolution: rate, pattern, process // Genetica. 2001. . 112113. . 18.
  125. Leroi AM The scale independence of evolution // Evol. Dev. 2000. . 2. . 6777.
  126. Michael J. Dougherty Is the human race evolving or devolving?. Scientific American (1998). 30 2012.
  127. response to Creationist claims Claim CB932: Evolution of degenerate forms. TalkOrigins Archive. 30 2012.
  128. Futuyma, 2005, . 250-251
  129. Mayr, 2001, . 133-134, 235-238
  130. Carroll SB Chance and necessity: the evolution of morphological complexity and diversity // Nature. 2001. . 409. . 11021109.
  131. Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W Prokaryotes: the unseen majority // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999. . 95. № 12. . 65786583.
  132. Schloss P, Handelsman J Status of the microbial census // Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2004. . 68. № 4. . 686691.
  133. 1 2 Bejder L, Hall BK Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss // Evol. Dev. 2002. . 4. № 6. . 44558.
  134. Orr H The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history // Nat. Rev. Genet. 2005. . 6. № 2. . 11927.
  135. Dobzhansky T. Genetics of natural populations XXV. Genetic changes in populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosphila persimilis in some locations in California // Evolution. 1956. . 10. № 1. . 8292.
  136. Nakajima A, Sugimoto Y, Yoneyama H, Nakae T High-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa due to interplay of the MexAB-OprM efflux pump and the DNA gyrase mutation // Microbiol. Immunol. 2002. . 46. № 6. . 3915.
  137. Blount ZD, Borland CZ, Lenski RE Inaugural Article: Historical contingency and the evolution of a key innovation in an experimental population of Escherichia coli // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008. . 105. № 23. . 7899906.
  138. Okada H, Negoro S, Kimura H, Nakamura S Evolutionary adaptation of plasmid-encoded enzymes for degrading nylon oligomers // Nature. 1983. . 306. № 5939. . 2036.
  139. Ohno S Birth of a unique enzyme from an alternative reading frame of the preexisted, internally repetitious coding sequence // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1984. . 81. № 8. . 24215.
  140. Copley SD Evolution of a metabolic pathway for degradation of a toxic xenobiotic: the patchwork approach // Trends Biochem. Sci. 2000. . 25. № 6. . 2615.
  141. Crawford RL, Jung CM, Strap JL The recent evolution of pentachlorophenol (PCP)-4-monooxygenase (PcpB) and associated pathways for bacterial degradation of PCP // Biodegradation. 2007. . 18. № 5. . 52539.
  142. Eshel I Clone-selection and optimal rates of mutation // Journal of Applied Probability. 1973. . 10. № 4. . 728738. DOI:10.2307/3212376
  143. Masel J, Bergman A, The evolution of the evolvability properties of the yeast prion [PSI+] // Evolution. 2003. . 57. № 7. . 14981512.
  144. Lancaster AK, Bardill JP, True HL, Masel J The Spontaneous Appearance Rate of the Yeast Prion [PSI+ and Its Implications for the Evolution of the Evolvability Properties of the [PSI+] System] // Genetics. 2010. . 184. № 2. . 393400.
  145. Draghi J, Wagner G Evolution of evolvability in a developmental model // Theoretical Population Biology. 2008. . 62. . 301315.
  146. Young NM., Hallgrímsson B. Serial homology and the evolution of mammalian limb covariation structure // Evolution. 2005. . 59. № 12. . 2691704.
  147. 1 2 Penny D, Poole A. The nature of the last universal common ancestor  (.) // Curr Opin Genet Dev. 1999. . 6. . 9. P. 672-677.
  148. Hall BK Descent with modification: the unity underlying homology and homoplasy as seen through an analysis of development and evolution // Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 2003. . 78. № 3. . 409433.
  149. Shubin N, Tabin , Carroll C Deep homology and the origins of evolutionary novelty // Nature. 2009. . 457. № 7231. . 818823.
  150. 1 2 3 Fong D, Kane T, Culver D Vestigialization and Loss of Nonfunctional Characters // Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1995. . 26. № 4. . 24968.
  151. Zhang Z, Gerstein M Large-scale analysis of pseudogenes in the human genome // Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2004. . 14. № 4. . 32835.
  152. Jeffery WR Adaptive evolution of eye degeneration in the Mexican blind cavefish // J. Hered. 2005. . 96. № 3. . 18596.
  153. Maxwell EE, Larsson HC Osteology and myology of the wing of the Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and its bearing on the evolution of vestigial structures // J. Morphol. 2007. . 268. № 5. . 42341.
  154. Silvestri AR, Singh I The unresolved problem of the third molar: would people be better off without it? // Journal of the American Dental Association (1939). 2003. . 134. № 4. . 4505.
  155. Coyne, Jerry A. Why Evolution is True.  Oxford University Press, 2009.  . 66.  309 .  ISBN 9780670020539
  156. Coyne, Jerry A. Why Evolution is True.  Oxford University Press, 2009.  . 85-86.  309 .  ISBN 9780670020539
  157. Gould, 2002
  158. Pallen MJ., Matzke NJ From The Origin of Species to the origin of bacterial flagella // Nat Rev Micro. . 4. № 10. . 784790. PMID http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16953248.
  159. Clements A, Bursac D., Gatsos X., Perry AJ., Civciristov S., Celik N., Likic VA., Poggio S., Jacobs-Wagner S. The reducible complexity of a mitochondrial molecular machine // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2009. . 106. № 37. . 1579115795.
  160. Hardin G The competitive exclusion principle // Science. 1960. . 131. № 3409. . 12927.
  161. Wade MJ The co-evolutionary genetics of ecological communities // Nat Rev Genet. 2007. . 8. № 3. . 185-195.
  162. Brodie ED Jr, Ridenhour BJ, Brodie ED 3rd. The evolutionary response of predators to dangerous prey: hotspots and coldspots in the geographic mosaic of coevolution between garter snakes and newts // Evolution. 2002. . 56. № 10. . 2067-2082.
  163. Sachs JL Cooperation within and among species // J Evol Biol. 2006. . 19. № 5. . 1426-1436.
  164. Nowak MA Five rules for the evolution of cooperation // Science. 2006. . 314. . 1560-1563.
  165. Paszkowski U Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses // Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2006. . 9. № 4. . 364-370.
  166. Hause B, Fester T Molecular and cell biology of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis // Planta. 2005. . 221. № 2. . 184-196.
  167. Reeve HK, Hölldobler B The emergence of a superorganism through intergroup competition // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007. . 104. . 9736-9740.
  168. Axelrod R, Hamilton WD The evolution of cooperation // Science. 1981. . 211. . 1390-1396.
  169. Wilson EO, Hölldobler B Eusociality: origin and consequences // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005. . 102. . 13367-13371.
  170. Joseph Boxhorn Observed Instances of Speciation  (.). TalkOrigins Archive. 23 2011.
  171. Jiggins CD, Bridle JR Speciation in the apple maggot fly: a blend of vintages? // Trends Ecol Evol. 2004. . 19. № 3. . 11-114.
  172. Weinberg JR, Starczak VR, Jorg, D Evidence for Rapid Speciation Following a Founder Event in the Laboratory // Evolution. 1992. . 46. № 4. . 1214-1220.
  173. de Queiroz K Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005. . 102. . Suppl 1:6600-6607.
  174. Ereshefsky, M Eliminative pluralism // Philosophy of Science. 1992. . 59. № 4. . 671690.
  175. , ..: - , 1942.  . 194.  505 .
  176. Fraser C, Alm EJ, Polz MF, Spratt BG, Hanage WP The bacterial species challenge: making sense of genetic and ecological diversity // Science. 2009. . 323. . 741-746.
  177. Gross BL, Rieseberg LH The ecological genetics of homoploid hybrid speciation // J Hered. 2005. . 96. № 3. . 241-252.
  178. Burke JM, Arnold ML Genetics and the fitness of hybrids // Annu Rev Genet. 2001. . 35. . 31-52.
  179. Vrijenhoek RC Polyploid hybrids: multiple origins of a treefrog species // Curr Biol. 2006. . 16. № 7. . R245-247.
  180. Herrel A, Huyghe K, Vanhooydonck B, Backeljau T, Breugelmans K, Grbac I, Van Damme R, Irschick DJ Rapid large-scale evolutionary divergence in morphology and performance associated with exploitation of a different dietary resource // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008. . 105. № 12. . 4792-4795.
  181. Losos, J. B. Warhelt, K. I. Schoener, T. W Adaptive differentiation following experimental island colonization in Anolis lizards // Nature. 1997. . 387. . 70-73.
  182. Hoskin CJ, Higgie M, McDonald KR, Moritz C Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation // Nature. 2005. . 437. . 1353-1356.
  183. Templeton AR The theory of speciation via the founder principle // Genetics. 1980. . 94. № 4. . 1011-1038.
  184. Gavrilets S Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? // Evolution. 2003. . 57. № 10. . 2197-2215.
  185. Antonovics J Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations X: long-term persistence of prereproductive isolation at a mine boundary // Heredity. 2006. . 97. № 1. . 33-37.
  186. Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Gries R, Gries G Natural selection and divergence in mate preference during speciation // Genetica. 2007. . 129. № 3. . 309-327.
  187. Savolainen V, Anstett MC, Lexer C, Hutton I, Clarkson JJ, Norup MV, Powell MP, Springate D, Salamin N, Baker WJ Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island // Nature. 2006. . 441. . 210-213.
  188. Barluenga M, Stölting KN, Salzburger W, Muschick M, Meyer A Sympatric speciation in Nicaraguan crater lake cichlid fish // Nature. 2006. . 439. . 719-723.
  189. Gavrilets S The Maynard Smith model of sympatric speciation // J Theor Biol. 2006. . 239. № 2. . 172-182.
  190. Wood TE, Takebayashi N, Barker MS, Mayrose I, Greenspoon PB, Rieseberg LH The frequency of polyploid speciation in vascular plants // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009. . 106. . 13875-13879.
  191. Hegarty MJ, Hiscock SJ Genomic clues to the evolutionary success of polyploid plants // Curr Biol. 2008. . 18. № 10. . R435-444.
  192. Jakobsson M, Hagenblad J, Tavaré S, Säll T, Halldén C, Lind-Halldén C, Nordborg M A unique recent origin of the allotetraploid species Arabidopsis suecica: Evidence from nuclear DNA markers // Mol Biol Evol. 2006. . 23. № 6. . 1217-1231.
  193. Säll T, Jakobsson M, Lind-Halldén C, Halldén C Chloroplast DNA indicates a single origin of the allotetraploid Arabidopsis suecica // J Evol Biol. 2003. . 16. № 5. . 1019-1029.
  194. Bomblies K, Weigel D Arabidopsis: a model genus for speciation // Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2007. . 17. № 6. . 500-504.
  195. Benton MJ Diversification and extinction in the history of life // Science. 1995. . 268. . 52-58.
  196. Raup DM Biological extinction in Earth history // Science. 1986. . 231. . 15281533.
  197. Avise JC, Hubbell SP, Ayala FJ In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008. . 105. . 1145311457.
  198. 1 2 Raup DM The role of extinction in evolution // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1994. . 91. . 67586763.
  199. Novacek MJ, Cleland EE The current biodiversity extinction event: scenarios for mitigation and recovery // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2001. . 98. № 10. . 54665470.
  200. Pimm S, Raven P, Peterson A, Sekercioglu CH, Ehrlich PR Human impacts on the rates of recent, present, and future bird extinctions. 2006. . 103. № 29. . 10941-10946.
  201. Barnosky AD, Koch PL, Feranec RS, Wing SL, Shabel AB Assessing the causes of late Pleistocene extinctions on the continents // Science. 2004. . 306. . 70-75.
  202. Lewis OT Climate change, species-area curves and the extinction crisis // hilos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 2006. . 361. . 163-171.
  203. Jablonski D Lessons from the past: evolutionary impacts of mass extinctions // Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2001. . 98. . 53935398.
  204. Mark Isaak. Index to Creationist Claims.
  205. Peretó J. Controversies on the origin of life. Int Microbiol., 2005. . 8(1). . 23-31.
  206. Luisi PL, Ferri F, Stano P. Approaches to semi-synthetic minimal cells: a review. Naturwissenschaften, 2006. . 93(1). . 1-13.
  207. Joyce GF. The antiquity of RNA-based evolution. Nature., 2002. . 418. . 214-221.
  208. Bapteste E, Walsh DA. Does the 'Ring of Life' ring true?  (.) // Trends Microbiol. 2005. . 13. P. 256-261.
  209. Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species
  210. Doolittle WF, Bapteste E. Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis  (.) // Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007. . 104. P. 2043-2049.
  211. Kunin V, Goldovsky L, Darzentas N, Ouzounis CA. The net of life: reconstructing the microbial phylogenetic network  (.) // Genome Res. 2005. . 15. P. 954-959.
  212. Jablonski D. The future of the fossil record  (.) // Science. 1999. . 284. P. 2114-2116.
  213. Mason SF. Origins of biomolecular handedness  (.) // Nature. 1984. . 311. P. 19-23.
  214. Wolf YI, Rogozin IB, Grishin NV, Koonin EV. Genome trees and the tree of life  (.) // Trends Genet. 2002. . 18. P. 472-479.
  215. Varki A, Altheide TK. Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack  (.) // Genome Res. 2005. . 15. P. 1746-1758.
  216. Futuyma, 2005, p. 94
  217. Futuyma, 2005, p. 96
  218. , 2010, p. 135-169
  219. Cavalier-Smith T Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution // Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2006. . 361(1470). P. 969-1006.
  220. Schopf JW Fossil evidence of Archaean life // Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2006. . 361(1470). P. 869-85.
  221. Valentine JW, Jablonski D, Erwin DH Fossils, molecules and embryos: new perspectives on the Cambrian explosion // Development. 1999. . 126. P. 851-859.
  222. Futuyma, 2005, p. 97-99
  223. Ohno S The reason for as well as the consequence of the Cambrian explosion in animal evolution // J Mol Evol. 1999. . 44. P. S23-27.
  224. Valentine JW, Jablonski D Morphological and developmental macroevolution: a paleontological perspective // Int J Dev Biol. 2003. . 47(7-8). P. 517-522.
  225. Waters ER Molecular adaptation and the origin of land plants // Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003. . 29(3). P. 456-463.
  226. Mayhew PJ Why are there so many insect species? Perspectives from fossils and phylogenies // Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2007. . 82(3). P. 425-454.
  227. Benton, M. J. Vertebrate Paleontology.  Blackwell Science Ltd, 2005.  472 .  P. 111-115.  ISBN 978-0-632-05637-8
  228. 1 2 Roger Lewin. Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction.  John Wiley & Sons.  ISBN 1405103787
  229. Michael Steiper, Nathan Young. Primates // The Timetree of Life / S. Blair Hedges,Sudhir Kumar.  Oxford University Press, 2007.  P. 483.  ISBN 0199535035
  230. 1 2 Michael Ruse,Joseph Travis. volution: The First Four Billion Years.  Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009.  P. 256-289.
  231. ..: , Corpus, 2011.  . 1.  216-224 .  ISBN 978-5-271-36293-4
  232. Soares P, Ermini L, Thomson N, Mormina M, Rito T, Rohl A, Salas A, Oppenheimer S, Macaulay V, Richards MB Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock // Am J Hum Genet. 2009. . 84. № 6. . 740-759.
  233. J. J. Bull, H. A. Wichman Applied evolution // Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 2001. . 32. . 183-217.
  234. Doebley JF, Gaut BS, Smith BD The molecular genetics of crop domestication // Cell. 2006. . 127. № 7. . 1309-1321.
  235. Maher B Evolution: Biology's next top model? // Nature. 2009. . 458. . 695-698.
  236. Borowsky R Restoring sight in blind cavefish // Curr Biol. 2008. . 18. № 1. . R23-24.
  237. Gross JB, Borowsky R, Tabin CJ A novel role for Mc1r in the parallel evolution of depigmentation in independent populations of the cavefish Astyanax mexicanus // PLoS Genet. 2009. . 5. № 1.
  238. FRASER AS Monte Carlo analyses of genetic models // Nature. 1958. . 181. . 208-2090.
  239. Jamshidi M Tools for intelligent control: fuzzy controllers, neural networks and genetic algorithms // Philos Transact A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2003. . 361. . 1781-1808.
  240. Ross, M. R [Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism] // Journal of Geoscience Education. 2008. . 53. № 3. . 319.
  241. Hameed, Salman Science and Religion: Bracing for Islamic Creationism // Science. 2009. . 322. . 16371638.
  242. Spergel D. N.; Scott, EC; Okamoto, S Science communication. Public acceptance of evolution // Science. 2006. . 313. . 765-766.
  243. .:

[]

[]

[] -

[]

  • . ..: . , 1999.  640 .
  • . . .: , 1991.  488 .
  • . . .: , 2001.  425 .
  • . ..: , 2005.  380 .  10000 .
  • ., ..: , 1982.  244 .

[]

[]